A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states, though some modern theorists hold that contemporary tribes can only be understood in terms of their relationship to states.
The term is often loosely used to refer to any non-Western or indigenous society. Many anthropologists use the term to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups (see clan and lineage).
In common modern understanding the word tribe means a social division within a traditional society consisting of a group of interlinked families or communities sharing a common culture and dialect. In the contemporary western mind the modern tribe is typically associated with a seat of traditional authority (tribal leader) with whom the representatives of external powers interact.

Terminology
Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.
Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much.
States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could coordinate economic production and military activities.

Origins

Notes

Benveniste, Émile

• Indo-European Language and Society, translated by Elizabeth Palmer. London: Faber and Faber 1973. ISBN 0-87024-250-4.
  Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen, 1935.
  Fried, Morton H. The Notion of Tribe. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0-8465-1548-2
  Nagy, Gregory, Greek Mythology and Poetics, Cornell University Press, 1990. In chapter 12, beginning on p.276, Professor Nagy explores the meaning of the word origin and social context of a tribe in ancient Greece and beyond.

The near-close near-back vowel is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet for the near-close near-back rounded vowel is ʊ. This derives from a small turned capital Ω; although officially called a small Latin letter upsilon, it bears little resemblance to the Greek upsilon and is informally called "horseshoe u" instead. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is U.
Some languages may have a near-close near-back unrounded vowel (see below). However, no language is known to contrast rounding of this vowel, so the IPA has not devised a standard symbol for it.

Near-close near-back rounded vowel

Its vowel height is near-close, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to a close vowel, but slightly less constricted.
Its vowel backness is near-back, which means the tongue is positioned as in a back vowel, but slightly further forward in the mouth.
Its vowel roundedness is rounded, which means that the lips are rounded. However, no language is known to contrast rounding this place of articulation, so the IPA symbol has not devised separate symbols. History

Near-close near-back unrounded vowel

Its vowel height is near-close, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to a close vowel, but slightly less constricted.
Its vowel backness is near-back, which means the tongue is positioned as in a back vowel, but slightly further forward in the mouth.
Its vowel roundedness is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded.

General Charles Chandler Krulak (born March 4, 1942) served as the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps from July 1, 1995 to June 30, 1999. He is the son of Lt. Gen. Victor H. "Brute" Krulak, USMC, who served in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam.
Charles Krulak was born in 1942 in Quantico, Virginia. After graduating from Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, Krulak attended the U.S. Naval Academy. He graduated from there in 1964 with a bachelor's degree. Krulak also holds a master's degree in labor relations from George Washington University (1973). He is a graduate of the Amphibious Warfare School (1968); the Army Command and General Staff College (1976); and the National War College (1982).

Marine Corps career
Following his retirement from the Marine Corps, General Krulak joined MBNA America in September 1999 as chief administrative officer for MBNA America, responsible for Personnel, Benefits, Compensation, Education, and other administrative services. Krulak has served as the Senior Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of MBNA Europe (2001-2005). He was the executive vice chairman and chief administration officer of MBNA Corporation (2004-2005). He retired from MBNA in 2005.
Following the takeover of English Football Club Aston Villa by MBNA Chairman Randy Lerner in August 2006 and as of 19 September 2006, General Krulak joined the Board of Aston Villa as non-executive director, where he quickly earned the approval of the fans by taking the time to post on various Aston Villa messageboards.

Post-Marine Corps career
General Krulak's decorations and medals included:

Defense Distinguished Service Medal
Distinguished Service Medal
Silver Star
Bronze Star Medal with Valor device and two gold stars
Purple Heart with gold star
Meritorious Service Medal
Navy Commendation Medal
Combat Action Ribbon
Presidential Unit Citation with bronze star
National Defense Service Medal with one bronze star
Vietnam Service Medal with silver star and two bronze stars
Southwest Asia Service Medal with two bronze stars
Sea Service Deployment Ribbon
Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry
Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation (with Palm)
Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Kuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia)
Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait).

Shaul Tchernichovsky (August 20, 1875 - October 14, 1943), (Hebrew: שאול טשרניחובסקי‎, Russian: Саул Гутманович Черниховский), was a Russian-born Hebrew poet. He is considered one of the great Hebrew poets, identified with nature poetry, and as a poet greatly influenced by the culture of ancient Greece.

Works
In the poetry of Tchernichovsky there is a blend of the influences of Jewish cultural heritage and world cultural heritage. He writes on Hebrew subjects as in "In Endor", a poem about King Saul. Saul comes to the witch of Endor, who dramatically describes Saul's condition at the end of his life. Tchernichovsky particularly identified with the character of Saul, perhaps due to his own name. He further describes in the poem the tragic fall of Saul and his sons on Mount Gilboa. In contrast, in the poem "Before a Statue of Apollo", the poet proves his affinity for Greek culture, identifying with the beauty it represents, even bowing down to it.
Tchernichovsky is the Hebrew poet who is identified more than any other Hebrew poet with the sonnet. He introduced the crown of sonnets Hebrew: כליל סונטות‎ into the Hebrew language as a "sonnet" built of fifteen sonnets in which the final sonnet consists of the first lines of the other fourteen sonnets. Each of his crowns of sonnets concerns a particular topic, such as "On Blood" or "To the Sun".
Even with his yen for world culture, Tchernichovsky is identified with the fate of his people. In response to the Holocaust he wrote the poems "The Slain of Tirmonye" and "Ballads of Worms" that brought into expression his heart's murmurings concerning the tragic fate of the Jewish people.
Toward the end of his life he composed some poems that are centered on images from his childhood point of view. These poems, which can properly be termed idylls, are his most splendid poetic works. His idylls serve as an example and a model for all of the idylls that have been written in the Hebrew language.
Many of his poems have been set to music by the best Hebrew popular composers, such as Yoel Angel and Nahum Nardi. Singer-songwriters have also set his lyrics to music, as Shlomo Artzi did for They Say There Is a Land (omrim yeshna eretz, אומרים ישנה ארץ), which is also well known in the settings of Angel and of Miki Gavrielov. Oh My Land My Birthplace (hoy artzi moladeti, Hebrew: הו ארצי מולדתי‎) is better known in the setting by Naomi Shemer, as arranged by Gil Aldema. Shalosh atonot (Three Jenny-asses, Hebrew: שלוש אתונות‎) also became a popular song.

Selkirkshire or the County of Selkirk is a registration county of Scotland. It borders Peebles to the west, Midlothian to the north, Berwick to the north-east, Roxburgh to the east, and Dumfries to the south.
Until 1975 it was a county, with a county council formed by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889. Under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 the county was abolished, with its area becoming part of the Ettrick and Lauderdale district of the Borders Region. The county town was the royal burgh of Selkirk. The county contained one other burgh, Galashiels.

Population
The archeology and historic buildings of the county were documented in 1957 by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments in Scotland. There is also a History of Selkirkshire by T. Craig Brown, published in 1886.

Istanbul Province is a province located in north-west Turkey. It has an area of 5,196 km² and a population of 11,622,257 (2006 est). The population was 10,018,735 in 2000. It is surrounded by the provinces of Tekirdağ to the west, Kocaeli to the east, the Black Sea to the north and the Sea of Marmara to the south. The Bosphorus (Boğaziçi) Strait divides the province in two parts: the European side and the Asian side. The capital of the province is the city of Istanbul which covers much of the province.

Districts


Adalar
Avcılar
Bağcılar
Bahçelievler
Bakırköy
Bayrampaşa
Beşiktaş
Beyoğlu
Büyükçekmece
Beykoz
Çatalca
Eminönü
Eyüp
Esenler
Fatih
Gaziosmanpaşa
Güngören
Kadıköy
Kağıthane
Kartal
Küçükçekmece
Maltepe
Pendik
Sarıyer
Silivri
Sultanbeyli
Şile
Şişli
Tuzla
Ümraniye
Üsküdar
Zeytinburnu

John Barclay may refer to:
John Barclay, London commercial trumpet player.
John Barclay (1582–1621), a Scottish satirist and Latin poet.
John Barclay (1734–1798), a Scottish divine.
John Barclay (1758–1826), anatomist.
John Barclay, a former Mayor of Philadelphia.
John Barclay, survivor of the shipwreck of HMS Birkenhead in 1852.
John Barclay (born 1954), cricketer.
John Barclay (1795-1826), Canadian Church of Scotland clergyman;.

The Reichsrat was one of the two legislative bodies in Germany under the Weimar constitution, the other one being the Reichstag. After the end of German monarchy and the founding of the Weimar Republic in 1919, the Reichsrat replaced the Bundesrat as the representation of the various German states.
The Bundesrat had been the central body of the German federal state, which had been founded in 1867 as the North German Confederation and in 1871 became the German Empire. As this federal state comprised the various German kingdoms, principalities and free cities under the leadership of the King of Prussia, the Bundesrat comprised the delegates of the various states. Prussia sent almost half the representatives, being the largest state by far and so could block almost any decision. Also, the meetings of the Bundesrat were headed by the German chancellor appointed by the Kaiser, who usually was identical to the Prussian prime minister. The Bundesrat was a very powerful institution, as its consent was needed for any legislation. Also before the chancellor's secretaries gained prominence in the 1890s, the Bundesrat together with the chancellor effectively formed the federal government.
The Weimar constitution curbed the rights of the various states and the powers of their representation. The Reichsrat could use only a suspensive veto against the Reichstag's bills and had no influence on federal government. In contrast to the Bundesrat, it comprised not only representatives from the state governments, since half of the Prussian delegation was appointed by this state's various provincial parliaments. After Hitler came to power in 1933, the policy of Gleichschaltung first deprived the Reichsrat of its powers and later formally abolished it altogether, turning Germany into a centralized state.
After World War II, when the Federal Republic of Germany was founded the state's representation again was called Bundesrat and again became more powerful than the Reichsrat though not as powerful as the Bundesrat of the German Empire.

Fixing Broken Windows: Restoring Order and Reducing Crime in Our Communities by George L. Kelling and Catherine Coles is a criminology and urban sociology book published in 1996, about petty crime and strategies to contain or eliminate it from urban neighborhoods.

The theory in action
Critics point to the fact that rates of major crimes also dropped in many other US cities during the 1990s, both those that had adopted 'zero tolerance' policies and those that had not. (See, e.g., Bernard Harcourt, Illusion of Order 2001).
Other research has pointed out that the 'zero tolerance' effect on serious crime is difficult to disentangle from other initiatives happening at around the same time in New York. These initiatives were 1) the police reforms described above, 2) programs that moved over 500,000 people into jobs from welfare at a time of economic buoyancy, and 3) housing vouchers that enabled poor families to move to better neighborhoods. Critics of the theory
Andrew Hunt and David Thomas use Fixing Broken Windows as a metaphor for avoiding software entropy in software development in their book, The Pragmatic Programmer Addison Wesley, ISBN 0-201-61622-X, 1999. Item 4 (of 22 tips) is Don't Live with Broken Windows. The term has also found its way into web-site development.

See also

Watford is a parliamentary constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.

Members of Parliament

John Peters (Born 19?? in Ashford, Kent) is a British disc jockey and long established personality in the East Midlands region. Known for his distinctive voice, he is currently a presenter on the East Midlands' 106.6 Smooth Radio which is based in Nottingham.

Radio Trent
In 1999, he became a freelance presenter, hosting shows for a number of stations in the East Midlands region, as well as also doing some behind the scenes engineering work. But in 2003, he made a return to regular presenting after joining Saga 106.6 FM. He became Saga's breakfast presenter, and made it a hat trick by hosting the station's inaugural programme.
He was with Saga throughout its timme on air, and was part of the launch team of the station's replacement, 106.6 Smooth Radio. When Smooth Radio began in March 2007, he initially presented its weekday drivetime show. However, from October 2007, Tony Lyman took over the slot, and John Peters became a night time and weekend presenter.
During his spare time, John Peters is involved with broadcast electronics, and has built his own station at home. He is often asked to repair equipment for other radio stations. He also enjoys restoring classic cars.

Non-Parametric statistics are statistics (statistic in the sense of a function on a sample) where it is not assumed that the population fits any parametrized distributions. Non-Parametric statistics are typically applied to populations that take on a ranked order (such as movie reviews receiving one to four stars).
The branch of statistics (in the sense of the field of mathematical science) known as non-parametric statistics is concerned with non-parametric statistical models and non-parametric statistical tests.
Non-parametric models differ from parametric models in that the model structure is not specified a priori but is instead determined from data. The term nonparametric is not meant to imply that such models completely lack parameters but that the number and nature of the parameters are flexible and not fixed in advance. Nonparametric models are therefore also called distribution free or parameter-free.
Non-parametric (or distribution-free) inferential statistical methods are mathematical procedures for statistical hypothesis testing which, unlike parametric statistics, make no assumptions about the frequency distributions of the variables being assessed. The most frequently used tests include
Nonparametric tests have less power than the appropriate parametric tests, but are more robust when the assumptions underlying the parametric test are not satisfied.

A histogram is a simple nonparametric estimate of a probability distribution
Kernel density estimation provides better estimates of the density than histograms.
Nonparametric regression and semiparametric regression methods have been developed based on kernels, splines, and wavelets.
binomial test
Anderson-Darling test
chi-square test
Cochran's Q
Cohen's kappa
Efron-Petrosian Test
Fisher's exact test
Friedman two-way analysis of variance by ranks
Kendall's tau
Kendall's W
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks
Kuiper's test
Mann-Whitney U or Wilcoxon rank sum test
Maximum parsimony for the development of species relationships using computational phylogenetics
McNemar's test (a special case of the chi-squared test)
median test
Pitman's permutation test
Siegel-Tukey test
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
Student-Newman-Keuls (SNK) test
Wald-Wolfowitz runs test
Wilcoxon signed-rank test.

As a body of water, a kill is a creek. The word comes from the Middle Dutch kille, meaning "riverbed" or "water channel." The modern Dutch term is kil.
The term is used in areas of Dutch influence in New York, New Jersey and other areas of the former New Netherland colony of Dutch America to describe a strait, river, or arm of the sea. Examples are Kill Van Kull and Arthur Kill, both separating Staten Island, New York from New Jersey, and used as a composite name, Wallkill River in Orange County, New York and the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania. Humorously, in Delaware, there exists a Murderkill River. "Kill" also shows up in location names as in the Catskill Mountains or the town of Fishkill, New York, which was the subject of a campaign by animal rights group, PETA, which wanted a more animal friendly name.[1]
A reference to 'kil' can be found in Dutch geographical names, e.g. Dordtsche Kil and Sluiskil (in the Terneuzen municipality).

Social conservatism generally refers to a political ideology or personal belief system that advocates the conservation or resurrection of what one, or one's community, considers to be traditional morality and social structure. However, the accepted meaning of traditional morality often differs from group to group within social conservatism. Thus, there are really no policies or positions that could be considered universal among social conservatives. There are, however, a number of principles to which at least a majority of social conservatives adhere.
A second meaning of the term has developed in the Nordic countries as a translation of socialkonservatism. Here it refers to pro-welfare liberal conservatives.

Definition and Core Principles
There is no necessary link between Social and Economic or Fiscal Conservatism. In fact, some Social Conservatives are otherwise apolitical or even left-wing on fiscal issues. For example, Social Conservatives may also support a degree of government intervention in economic life for what they feel is to the benefit of the community, and as such will tend to support the concept of a social market economy to further this aim. This concern for material welfare, like advocacy of traditional mores, will often have a basis in the religion of the Social Conservatives in question. Examples of such Social Conservatives include the Christian Social Union of Bavaria, the Family First and Democratic Labor Party of Australia,the so-called red tory movement in Canada, and possibly the Communitarian movement in the United States.
There is more overlap between Social Conservatism and Paleoconservatism in that they both have respect for traditional social forms. However, Paleoconservatism has a strong Cultural Conservative strain which Social Conservatism, in and of itself, is not necessarily allied with. For example, John Burger, writing in Crisis Magazine in 2005 said:
"The presence of a significant population of culturally Catholic immigrants offers hope that their culture will permeate a decadent American society and contribute to the re-evangelization of native-born Catholics. . . Abortion is still illegal in most Latin American countries. And in most areas, it's not even part of a person's consciousness." [1]

Coordinates: 54°52′50″N 1°32′14″W / 54.880624, -1.537083
Fatfield is a small village in Tyne and Wear, located in the City of Sunderland metropolitan borough. It formed part of the Washington New Town.
It had national publicity in the 1990's when the village was challenged to lose weight on the Fatfield Diet as part of a television programme.
The housing style in Fatfield consists of centrally located attached council houses (known as white houses due to their colour) and privately owned detached houses located in quiet cul-de-sacs on the outskirts. Washington Arts Centre is also located in Fatfield.

Tourist Guide A person who guides visitors in the language of their choice and interprets the cultural and natural heritage of an area, which person normally possesses an area-specific qualification usually issued and/or recognised by the appropriate authority [EN 13809:2003]
Tourist Guides are representatives of the cities, regions and countries for which they are qualified. It depends largely on them if visitors feel welcome, want to stay longer or decide to come back. They therefore contribute considerably to the perception of the destination. Tourist Guides are able to help travellers understand the culture of the region visited and the way of life of its inhabitants. They have a particular role on the one hand to promote the cultural and natural heritage whilst on the other hand to help ensure its sustainability by making visitors aware of its importance and vulnerability.
A tourist guide is a person who leads groups of people around a town, museum, or other tourist venue. The tourist guide provides a commentary on the features and history of the location, the tours can be from as little as 10-15 minutes to extended periods over many days. Considerable importance is placed on the guide's knowledge of local stories, history and culture depending on the location of the tour
A guide who works at a particular location, such as a museum, may be called a docent and may provide entertaining, relevant, organized and themed heritage interpretation. The role consists of leading groups of visitors around cultural, environmentally, or previously arranged attractions in significant places.
Tour Managers lead groups as part of a package holiday into countries where they speak a different language, they act as interpretors for the group and as representatives of the holiday company. Importance is placed on the guides knowledge of the languages, travel documentation requirements and cultural differences.

The formal fallacy of false dilemma—also known as false choice, false dichotomy, falsified dilemma, fallacy of the excluded middle, black and white thinking, false correlative, either/or fallacy, and bifurcation—involves a situation in which two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there exist one or more other options which have not been considered. The fallacy relies on a misuse of the or operator. For misuse of the and operator, see Package-deal fallacy.
The dilemma need not be limited to two choices; it may involve three possibilities, in which case it is known as a trifurcation. There may be even more choices involved, in which case the fallacy may arise simply by accidental omission—possibly through a form of wishful thinking—rather than by deliberate deception.
When two alternatives are presented, they are often, though not always, two extreme points on some spectrum of possibilities. This can lend credence to the larger argument by giving the impression that the options are mutually exclusive, even though they need not be. Furthermore, the options are typically presented as being collectively exhaustive, in which case the fallacy can be overcome, or at least weakened, by considering other possibilities, or perhaps by considering the whole spectrum of possibilities, as in fuzzy logic.

Examples
Very often a Morton's Fork, a choice between two equally unpleasant options, is a false dilemma. The phrase originates from an argument for taxing English nobles:
"Either the nobles of this country appear wealthy, in which case they can be taxed for good; or they appear poor, in which case they are living frugally and must have immense savings, which can be taxed for good."
This is a false dilemma, because some members of the nobility may in fact lack liquid assets.

Black and white thinking

Correlative-based fallacies
Descartes' Error
Law of the excluded middle, whose misapplication is sometimes the cause of this fallacy
Pascal's Wager
Nolan chart
Half-truths

John B. Cobb, Jr. (born February 9, 1925) is an American United Methodist theologian who played a crucial role in the development of process theology. He integrated Alfred North Whitehead's metaphysics into Christianity, and applied it to issues of social justice.

Biography
Cobb came to identify his theological journey as being divided into three trajectories. In the first trajectory, he tried to reconstruct a vision of Christianity applying Whitehead's cosmology. He sought to reconcile the particularity of the Christian faith with the need for pluralism and openness, establishing a christology which demanded tolerance and open-mindedness. He did this by understanding Christ as a "creative transformation", more a process than a person. This creative transformation demanded not just tolerance, but open discourse with other faiths, with the goal of transforming both participants.
The second trajectory, initiated by his son, Cliff, confronted ecological issues from a Whiteheadian perspective. In this trajectory, the two of them collaborated with Herman Daly in writing For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, the Environment, and a Sustainable Future (1989), which constituted Cobb's contribution to economics.
The third trajectory advocated "theology in the service of the church". Here he emphasized the central importance of Christ as the hope of the world, and the church's central importance in proclaiming Christ. He spoke to ethical and communitarian issues regarding the church.

The three trajectories
Cobb advocated a theology that managed to be both christocentric and pluralistic in its approach to other faiths. He proclaimed that christocentrism is rooted in Sophia, or divine wisdom, which is the essence of God who is embodied in Christ. He asserted that it requires a Christian to reject arrogance, exclusivism, and dogmatism as obstacles to the christological creative transformation. In this understanding, other religions could approach Christ's essence without actually believing in Christ per se. Cobb saw Jesus as the center of history, but not the whole of history. He saw the need to expand this history to include those of other faiths. Even if the christological creative process leads one to displace Christ's central position in that history with something else, he says, that displacement itself is faithful and true to Christ.

Hylonomus ("forest mouse") was an early reptile. It lived 315 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. As of 2006 it is the earliest confirmed reptile (Westlothiana is older but may be an amphibian). It was 20 cm long (including the tail) and probably would have looked rather similar to modern lizards. It had small sharp teeth and probably ate millipedes and early insects. It is a precursor of later reptiles. Its predators were the giant dragonflies, Mesothelae spiders, large arthropods, and other tetrapods such as Eryops, and Archaeothyris.
Fossils of Hylonomus have been found in the remains of fossilized tree stumps in Joggins, Nova Scotia. It is thought that after harsh weather, the tree tops would crash down and the stumps became hollowed out. Hylonomus individuals seeking shelter would enter but get trapped, starving to death.
This animal was discovered by Sir William Dawson in the 1800s. The name comes from the Greek word for wood, the Latin for mouse (forest mouse), and the name of the geologist, and Dawson's teacher, Sir Charles Lyell.

History

Edmund S. Valtman (May 31, 1914-January 12, 2005) was an Estonian-American editorial cartoonist and winner of the 1962 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning.
Born in Tallinn, Estonia, he sold his first cartoons at age 15 to the children's magazine Laste rõõm. He worked as an editorial cartoonist for the newspapers Eesti Sõna and Maa Sõna and studied at the Tallinn Art and Applied Art School. When the USSR took over Estonia in 1944, he and his wife fled the country and spent the next four years in a displaced persons camp in Germany, which was still under the control of Allied occupation forces. They immigrated to the United States in 1949.
Once in the US, Valtman worked for the Hartford Times from 1951 until his 1975 retirement. He was noted for his caricatures of Cold War-era communist leaders like Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev. He won the Pulitzer Prize for his August 31, 1961 cartoon. It showed Fidel Castro leading a shackled, beaten-down man representing Cuba and advising Brazil "What You Need, Man, Is a Revolution Like Mine!"
Valtman died in a Bloomfield, Connecticut retirement home.

Ethnolinguistics is a field of linguistic anthropology which studies the language of a particular ethnic group.
Ethnolinguistics is frequently associated with minority linguistic groups within a larger population, such as the Native American languages or the languages of immigrants. In these cases, ethnolinguistics studies the use of a minority language within the context of the majority population, and it also studies the perception of the language by the majority population.
More generally, ethnolinguistics studies the relationship between language and culture, and the way different ethnic groups perceive the world. A well-known (but controversial) ethnolinguistic subject is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which states that perception is limited by what can be described in one's own language.
Ethnolinguists study the way perception and conceptualization influences language, and show how this is linked to different cultures and societies. An example is the way spatial orientation is expressed in various cultures (Bernd Heine 1997, Yi-Fu Tuan 1974). In many societies, words for the cardinal directions East and West are derived from terms for sunrise/sunset. The nomenclature for cardinal directions of Eskimo speakers of Greenland, however, is based on geographical landmarks such as the river system and one's position on the coast. Similarly, the Yurok lack the idea of cardinal directions; they orient themselves with respect to their principal geographic feature, the Klamath River.

Darts is a variety of related games, in which darts are thrown at a circular target (dart board) hung on a wall. Though various different boards and games have been used in the past, the term 'darts' usually now refers to a standardised game involving a specific board design and set of rules.
As well as being a professional competitive activity, darts is a traditional pub game, commonly played in the United Kingdom (the first country to officially recognize darts as a sport), across the Commonwealth, the Netherlands, Ireland, the Scandinavian countries, the United States, and elsewhere.
Dart boards are usually made of sisal fibers or boar bristles, low quality boards are sometimes made of coiled paper. A regulation board is 18 inches (45.72 cm) in diameter, and is divided into 20 sections. Each section is lined with thin metal wire. The numbers indicating the various scoring sections of the board are normally made of wire, especially on tournament-quality boards, but may be printed directly on the board instead.

Height and distance
Various designs of dartboard have been used, and regional variations remain in parts of Staffordshire, Manchester (log-end board).

Scoring
A game of darts is usually contested between two players who take turns in throwing up to three darts. Starting from a set score, usually 501 or 301, a player wins by reducing his score to zero. The last dart in the leg must hit either a double or the inner portion of the bullseye, which is the double of the outer bull, and must reduce the score to exactly 0. Successfully doing so is known as "doubling out" or "checking out" (see the Glossary of darts for more darts terminology). A throw that would reduce a player's score to less than zero does not count, his turn ends, and his score is reset to what it was before that turn. (Sometimes in friendly games a player is allowed a dog's chance by "splitting the eleven" if he has a remaining score of 1. This required placing a final dart between the legs of the number 11 in the normally non-scoring part of the board). Since the double areas are small, doubling out is usually the most difficult and tense part of a leg. Longer matches are often divided into sets, each comprising some number of legs.
Although playing straight down from 501 is standard in darts, other variations exist, notably "doubling in", where players must hit a double to begin scoring, with all darts thrown before said double contributing nothing to their score. Other games that are commonly played differ in their scoring methods. These include "Round The Clock", "Jumpers", "Killer" and the more complicated "Cricket".
In "Round the Clock", players must hit each numbered section in turn, finishing with a bull to win. Far from being a beginner's game, Round The Clock is a good training game since it practices targeting all areas of the board, a skill which is essential when finishing a classic leg.
In Killer, a number of players "own" a number on the dartboard (often selected by throwing a dart with their non-playing arm) and compete to build up "lives" (by hitting that number) until a threshold is reached (usually 4 or 6) before attempting to "kill" other players by removing the lives they have built up (by hitting those other players' number) until a single player is left.

Playing darts
see also: main article split in darts
Of the two professional organizations, the British Darts Organisation (BDO), founded 1973, is the older. Its tournaments are often shown on the BBC in the UK, and on SBS6 in the Netherlands. The BDO is a member of the World Darts Federation (WDF) (founded 1976), along with organizations in some 60 other countries worldwide. The BDO originally organized a number of the more prestigious British based tournaments with a few notable exceptions such as the News of the World Championship and the national events run under the auspices of the National Darts Association of Great Britain. However many sponsors were lost and British TV coverage became much reduced by the early nineties.
In 1992 a breakaway organization was formed, initially known as the World Darts Council (WDC) but shortly after known as the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC). The PDC tournaments have a considerable following, although due to their coverage on subscription-based Sky television, the PDC World Championship has lower TV viewing figures that of the BDO.
The PDC tournaments often have higher prize money and feature the leading player in the history of the game, 13-time World Champion Phil Taylor. The highly successful BDO player Raymond van Barneveld switched to the PDC and won the World Championship at his first attempt in 2007.

Professional organizations
The BDO and PDC both organize a World Professional Championship. They are held annually over the Christmas/New Year period, with the PDC championship finishing slightly earlier than the BDO tournament. The BDO World Championship has been running since 1978; the PDC World Championship started in 1994.
Both organizations hold other professional tournaments. The BDO organize the World Masters and many Open tournaments. They also organize county darts for their 64 county members in the UK including individual and team events.
The PDC's major tournaments are the World Championships Premier League, UK Open, Las Vegas Desert Classic, World Matchplay and the World Grand Prix. All of these are broadcast live on Sky Sports television in the UK. They also hold PDC Pro Tour events and smaller category events around the UK. As of 2007 the PDC have introduced two new televised major tournaments - the US Open (to be broadcast on Challenge TV) and the Grand Slam of Darts (to be screened on ITV).
There are two Dutch independently organised major tournaments the International Darts League, and the World Darts Trophy which as from 2007 feature a mix of BDO and PDC players. Both organizations allocate rankings to the tournaments.
The WDF World Cup for national teams and a singles tournament has been played biennially since 1977. The WDF also organize the Europe Cup.

Professional competitions
Darts first appeared on British television in 1962 when Westward Television broadcast the Westward TV Invitational to the south-west of England. In 1970, ITV broadcast the News of the World Championship and from 1972 the Indoor League, which featured a darts tournament.
Over the next decade darts coverage expanded with many major tournaments appearing on both ITV and BBC through the 1970s and early 1980s, but the cancellation of ITV's World of Sport show in 1985 was the start of their gradual withdrawal from coverage. The BBC also cut back on their coverage to the extent that one major event was still broadcast on either channel by 1988 - the World Championship.
With the creation of the PDC and expanded coverage of the BDO on BBC, darts has since grown again. There are again several major tournaments broadcast in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world.
In Europe, Eurosport broadcast the Lakeside World Championships having signed a three-year contract in 2006 and also broadcast the Finland Open, BDO British Internationals, the BDO England Open and the BDO British Open that year. There has been no Eurosport coverage of Open events thus far in 2007.
In the UK, The Lakeside and the Winmau World Masters are currently broadcast by BBC. However it wasn't until 2005 that viewers were able to see every dart thrown live at the World Championship. This was the year that BBC introduced interactive coverage on its BBCi service.
In the Netherlands, SBS6 broadcasts the Lakeside (since 1998), International Darts League, World Darts Trophy and the Dutch Open. RTL 5 broadcast the Dutch Grand Masters in 2005. Some of these tournaments can also be watched on the internet for free using a live stream, depending on contractual restrictions (external links: SBS Streams [2][3][4][5][6] and Watchdarts.com stream [7])
The PDC's Premier League, UK Open, Las Vegas Desert Classic, World Matchplay and World Grand Prix are all televised live and in their entirety in the UK by satellite and cable broadcaster BSkyB on Sky Sports. Dutch station, Sport One, DSF in Germany and several other tv stations across the globe also broadcast the PDC events.
The PDC launched the World Series of Darts for the first time in the United States in 2006. Its $1 million prize showcased professional darts in the United States. Unfortunately the programme was not a ratings success and was taken from its peak time broadcast slot on ESPN after just a few weeks. The tournament was replaced with a US Open event in 2007 which was screened in the UK on digital television channel Challenge TV.
The PDC have also confirmed that a new Grand Slam of Darts event will be broadcast on ITV1 and ITV4 in November. This represents the first major darts tournament to be covered by the ITV network in almost twenty years.

Televised darts
In places where alcohol is consumed, English law has long permitted betting only on games of skill, as opposed to games of chance, and then only for small stakes. An apocryphal tale relates that in 1908, Jim Garside, the landlord of the Adelphi Inn, Leeds, England was called before the local magistrates to answer the charge that he had allowed betting on a game of chance, darts, on his premises. Garside asked for the assistance of local champion William "Bigfoot" Anakin who attended as a witness and demonstrated that he could hit any number on the board nominated by the court. Garside was discharged as the magistrates found darts, indeed, to be a game of skill. More recently, in keeping with Darts' strong association with pubs and drinking, matches between friends or pub teams are often played for pints.
In the professional game, betting is prominent with many of the big bookmaking companies sponsoring events (particularly within the PDC). Sky Bet (World Grand Prix, Premier League), Stan James (World Matchplay), Blue Square (UK Open) and Ladbrokes (World Championship) are all title sponsors of major PDC events.
On FSN broadcasts in the United States, the logos for Ladbrokes are pixelized out and digitally obscured, along with any audible references to Ladbrokes, due to American laws and policies against online gambling.

Betting
BDO: Martin Adams Wolfie
PDC: Raymond van Barneveld
Multiple World Champions
13 Phil Taylor The Power (11 PDC, 2 BDO)
7 Trina Gulliver The Golden Girl
5 Eric Bristow Crafty Cockney
5 Raymond van Barneveld Barney (4 BDO, 1 PDC)
3 John Lowe Old Stoneface
2 Jocky Wilson
2 John Part Darth Maple (1 BDO, 1 PDC)
2 Dennis Priestley The Menace (1 BDO, 1 PDC)
Bob Anderson The Limestone Cowboy
Steve Beaton Magnum-PI/ The Bronze Adonis
Richie Burnett The Prince of Wales
Tony David The Deadly Boomerang
Keith Deller The Fella
Andy Fordham The Viking
Ted Hankey The Count
Jelle Klaasen The Matador
Leighton Rees
Les Wallace McDanger
John Walton John Boy

World Champions
BDO
Martin Atkins The Assassin
Gary Anderson The Dreamboy
Dick van Dijk The Player
Darryl Fitton The Dazzler
Bobby George Bobby Dazzler / Mister Glitter
Shaun Greatbatch 9 Dart
Phill Nixon Nixy
Tony O'Shea Silverback
Gary Robson Robbo
Co Stompé The Matchstick
Mark Webster Webby
Tony West The Tornado
Simon Whitlock The Wizard
PDC
Ronnie Baxter The Rocket
Mark Dudbridge Flash
Tony Eccles The Viper
Terry Jenkins The Bull
Mervyn King The King
Adrian Lewis Jackpot
Colin Lloyd Jaws
Wayne Mardle Hawaii 501
Peter Manley One Dart
Chris Mason Mace the Ace
Kevin Painter The Artist
Roland Scholten The Tripod
Vincent van der Voort Greased Lightning
Michael van Gerwen Mighty Mike
James Wade 009
Alan Warriner-Little The Iceman
Former Players
Tony Brown
Richie Davies
Alan Evans
Mike Gregory
Rod Harrington
Paul Lim - 1st World Ch'ship 9-darter
Marshall James
John Lowe
Dave Whitcombe

Other famous players
There are a number of regional variations on the standard rules and scoring systems. Round the Clock is a variation that involves hitting the numbers in sequence.

Variations
American Darts uses a board made of basswood, using the end grain. Embedded in the board are wires that separate the board into scoring sections. High quailty board have rotatable centres, that can be turned so the board will wear more evenly. The centre of the cork is 5' 3" from the floor
There are also a number of games regarding placing pictures of famous people onto dart boards.

American darts

Cricket See also

The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe which entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century. The Vandals may have given their name to the region of Andalusia, which according to one of several theories of its etymology was originally Vandalusia or land of the Vandals (which would be the source of Al-Andalus — the Arabic name of Iberian Peninsula), in the south of present day Spain, where they settled before pushing on to North Africa.
The Goth Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths and regent of the Visigoths, was allied by marriage with the Vandals, as well as with the Burgundians and the Franks under Clovis I.

Incursions into the Roman Empire
In 406 the Vandals advanced from Pannonia travelling west along the Danube without much difficulty, but when they reached the Rhine, they met resistance from the Franks, who populated and controlled Romanized regions in northern Gaul. Twenty thousand Vandals, including Godigisel himself, died in the resulting battle, but then with the help of the Alans they managed to defeat the Franks, and on December 31, 406 the Vandals crossed the frozen Rhine to invade Gaul, which they devastated terribly. Under Godigisel's son Gunderic, the Vandals plundered their way westward and southward through Aquitaine.

In Gaul
On October 13, 409 they crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian peninsula. There they 'received land' from the Romans, as foederati, in Gallaecia (Northwest) and Hispania Baetica (South), while the Alans got lands in Lusitania (West) and the region around Carthago Nova. The Suebi also controlled part of Gallaecia. The Visigoths, who invaded Iberia before receiving lands in Septimania (Southern France), crushed the Alans in 426, killing the western Alan king Attaces. The remainder of his people subsequently appealed to the Vandal king Gunderic to accept the Alan crown. Later Vandal kings in North Africa styled themselves Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum ("King of the Vandals and Alans").

In Iberia

The Vandal Kingdom in North Africa
The Vandal conquest of North Africa is considered as a strategic move. The Vandals took North Africa as a base for raiding the Mediterranean Sea, much like the Vikings. It was under the reign of king Geiseric (Genseric, Gaiseric), Gunderic's half brother, when Vandals started building a Vandal fleet, to plunder the Mediterranean.
In 429, political maneuvering in Rome was to change the landscape forever. Rome was ruled by the boy emperor Valentinian III (who rose to power at the age of 8), and his mother Galla Placidia. However, the Roman General Flavius Aëtius, in vying for power, convinced Galla Placidia that her General Boniface was plotting to kill her and her son to claim the throne for himself. As proof, he implored her to write him a letter asking him to come to Rome and she would see that Boniface would refuse. At the same time Aëtius sent Boniface a letter stating that he should disregard letters from Rome asking him to return for they were plotting to kill him. When Boniface saw the letter from Rome, and believed there was a plot to kill him, he enlisted the help of the Vandal King Geiseric. He promised the Vandals land in North Africa in exchange for their help. However, once it was known that the whole thing was a plot, and Boniface was once again in Rome's favour, it was too late to turn back the Vandal invasion.
Geiseric crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with the entire tribe of 80,000 and moved east, pillaging and looting as they drove more and more refugees toward the walled city of Hippo Regius. Gaiseric realized that they wouldn't be able to take the city in a direct assault, so began a months long siege on the walls of Hippo Regius. Inside Saint Augustine and his priests prayed for relief from the Arian invaders, knowing full well that the fall of the city would spell conversion or death for many Christians. On 28 August 430, three months into the siege, St. Augustine died, perhaps from hunger or stress, as the wheat fields outside the city lay dormant and unharvested. After 14 months, hunger and the inevitable diseases were ravaging both the city inhabitants and the Vandals outside the city walls.
Peace was made between the Romans, who in 435 granted them some territory in Northern Africa, but it was broken by Geiseric, who in 439 took Carthage and made it his capital. The Vandals took and plundered the city without a fight, entering the city while most of the inhabitants were attending the races at the hippodrome. Geiseric then built the Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans into a powerful state with the capital at Saldae; he conquered Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands.

Establishment

Main article: Sack of Rome (455) Sack of Rome
In 468 the Vandals destroyed an enormous East Roman fleet sent against them. Following up the attack, the Vandals tried to invade the Peloponnese but were driven back by the inhabitants of the Mani peninsula at Kenipolis with heavy losses.

Consolidation
Differences between the Arian Christian faith which most of the Vandals followed and the Nicaean Trinitarian Christians (who included the official church of the Roman Empire and later Byzantium as well as Donatists) was a constant source of tension in their African state. Catholic bishops were punished by Geiseric with deposition, exile, or death, and laymen were excluded from office and frequently suffered confiscation of their property. It is said of Geiseric himself that he was originally a Catholic and had changed to Arianism about 428; this, however, is probably an invention. He protected his Catholic subjects when his relations with Rome and Constantinople were friendly, as during the years 454–57, when the Catholic community at Carthage, being without a head, elected Deogratias bishop. The same was also the case during the years 476–77 when Bishop Victor of Cartenna sent him, during a period of peace, a sharp refutation of Arianism and suffered no punishment. Generally, however, and although Trinitarian Christianity was rarely officially forbidden (the last months of Huneric's reign being an exception) most Vandal kings, except Hilderic, persecuted non-Arian Christians to a greater or lesser extent. They were forbidden from making converts among the Vandals, and life was generally difficult for the non-Arian Christian clergy, who were denied bishoprics.

Domestic religious tensions
Geiseric, one of the most powerful personalities of the "era of the Migrations" died at a great age on 25 January 477. According to the law of succession which he had promulgated, his successor was not the eldest son but the oldest male member of the royal house (law of seniority). Thus he was succeeded by his son Huneric (Hunerich, 477–484), who at first protected the Catholics, owing to his fear of Constantinople. But from 482 Huneric's reign was mostly notable for its religious persecutions of the Manichaeans and Catholics in the most terrible manner.
Gunthamund (484 – 496), his cousin and successor, sought internal peace with the Catholics and protected them once more. Externally, the Vandal power had been declining since Geiseric's death, and Gunthamund lost large parts of Sicily to the Ostrogoths and had to withstand increasing pressure from the autochthonous Moors.
While Thrasamund (496–523), owing to his religious fanaticism, was hostile to Catholics, he contented himself with bloodless persecutions.

Decline

Main article: Vandalic War The turbulent end

Godigisel (359–407)
Gunderic (407–428)
Geiseric (428–477)
Huneric (477–484)
Gunthamund (484–496)
Thrasamund (496–523)
Hilderic (523–530)
Gelimer (530–534) List of kings

Main article: Vandalic language Vandalic language
From the Middle Ages, the Swedish king had been styled, Suecorum, Gothorum et Vandalorum Rex: King of the Swedes, the Goths and the Vandals. The present king, Carl XVI Gustaf dropped the title in 1973 and now styles himself simply as King of Sweden.

See also
Helmut Castritius: Die Vandalen. Etappen einer Spurensuche. Stuttgart u.a. 2007. Christian Courtois: Les Vandales et l'Afrique. Paris 1955 Pierre Courcelle: Histoire littéraire des grandes invasions germaniques. 3rd edition Paris 1964 (Collection des études Augustiniennes: Série antiquité, 19). Hans-Joachim Diesner: Vandalen. In: Paulys Realencyclopädie der class. Altertumswissenschaft (RE Suppl. X, 1965), S. 957-992. Hans-Joachim Diesner: Das Vandalenreich. Aufstieg und Untergang. Stuttgart 1966. Frank M. Clover: The Late Roman West and the Vandals. Aldershot 1993 (Collected studies series 401), ISBN 0-86078-354-5. L'Afrique vandale et byzantine. Teil 1. Turnhout 2002 (Antiquité Tardive 10), ISBN 2-503-51275-5. L'Afrique vandale et byzantine. Teil 2, Turnhout 2003 (Antiquité Tardive 11), ISBN 2-503-52262-9. Walter Pohl: Die Völkerwanderung. Eroberung und Integration. Stuttgart 2002, S. 70-86, ISBN 3-17-015566-0. Roland Steinacher: Vandalen - Rezeptions- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte. In: Hubert Cancik (Hrsg.): Der Neue Pauly, Stuttgart 2003, Band 15/3, S. 942-946, ISBN 3-476-01489-4. Yves Modéran: Les Maures et l'Afrique romaine. 4e.-7e. siècle. Rom 2003 (Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome, 314), ISBN 2-7283-0640-0. Die Vandalen: die Könige, die Eliten, die Krieger, die Handwerker. [Publikation zur Ausstellung "Die Vandalen"; eine Ausstellung der Maria-Curie-Sklodowska-Universität Lublin und des Landesmuseums Zamość ... ; Ausstellung im Weserrenaissance-Schloss Bevern .... Nordstemmen 2003. ISBN 3-9805898-6-2 Ludwig Schmidt: Geschichte der Wandalen. 2. Auflage, München 1942. Roland Steinacher: Wenden, Slawen, Vandalen. Eine frühmittelalterliche pseudologische Gleichsetzung und ihr Nachleben bis ins 18. Jahrhundert. In: W. Pohl (Hrsg.): Auf der Suche nach den Ursprüngen. Von der Bedeutung des frühen Mittelalters (Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 8), Wien 2004, S. 329-353.

Stefan Donecker; Roland Steinacher, Rex Vandalorum - The Debates on Wends and Vandals in Swedish Humanism as an Indicator for Early Modern Patterns of Ethnic Perception, in: ed. Robert Nedoma, Der Norden im Ausland - das Ausland im Norden. Formung und Transformation von Konzepten und Bildern des Anderen vom Mittelalter bis heute (Wiener Studien zur Skandinavistik 15, Wien 2006) 242-252.
John Julius Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries
Westermann, Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German)
Pauly-Wissowa
This article incorporates text from the public-domain Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913.
Lord Mahon Philip Henry Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope, The Life of Belisarius, 1848. Reprinted 2006 (unabridged with editorial comments) Evolution Publishing, ISBN 1-889758-67-1. [1]
Online Etymology Dictionary: Vandal
Brian Adam: History of the Vandals
Ivor J. Davidson, A Public Faith, Chapter 11, Christians and Barbarians, Volume 2 of Baker History of the Church, 2005, ISBN 0-8010-1275-9
Victor of Vita, History of the Vandal Persecution ISBN 0-85323-127-3. Written 484, non-NPOV primary source.
F. Papencordt's Geschichte der vandalischen Herrschaft in Afrika